In the world of automotive R&D, hydraulic simulation tables are a workhorse for performing tests on everything from what’s under a vehicle (for example, transmissions and suspensions) to inside the cabin (for example, seats and headrests). As OEMs increasingly develop EVs, engineers face new design challenges that experts say standard test and simulation equipment can’t handle.

“Auto industry simulation tables can typically reach 50Hz; but EV testing requires much higher frequencies, up to 150Hz,” says Kevin Oliverio, department manager for hydraulics at Warren, Michigan-based Element Materials Technology.

According to Oliverio, most of the vibration testing on, say, automotive suspensions and components starts to roll off around 50Hz. But EV battery components require a much higher threshold. With frequencies from 50 to 150Hz, a test lab can simulate a capacitor’s ability to deal with vibration as well as how well soldering bonds stand up. Higher frequency testing, up to 150Hz, also enables automakers and battery designers to accurately see the rate of charge and discharge under all conditions. This level of testing, says Oliverio, enables feedback equivalent to what a vehicle’s battery would experience while a car is moving versus parked.

Testing battery components was something, Olivero says, Element began undertaking seven years ago on a traditional simulation table for a large automotive OEM. The Element team saw where the auto industry was heading and increased its testing capability by bringing another simulation table online. With the use of battery cyclers, Element was able to measure a battery cell’s response over time. This also led Element’s team to enclose its table in an environmental chamber, including fire suppression and venting. As the auto industry kept pushing the boundaries of EVs, Element looked to stay a step ahead and add high-frequency testing.

The design and benefits of high-frequency test and simulation
Element approached Moog with its need for high frequency battery testing. Element’s request was to upgrade its existing Moog multi-axis shaker table, or MAST, which the motion-control company had installed several years ago at Element’s Warren facility. Moog set about solving Element’s challenge by quickly developing a dual servo valve manifold upgrade, allowing the Moog MAST to achieve the higher frequency required to perform EV battery testing. Element disassembled the hydraulic actuators on the table and shipped them to Moog for re-engineering. Moog quickly modified the design, performed the upgrade, and reassembled and tested the actuators. In a few weeks, the team reinstalled the upgraded high-frequency table at Element for use on a large, incoming OEM order.

“We looked at our existing system at Element in terms of acceleration and displacement and worked with them to beat the performance specifications,” Larry Rogers, associate key account manager for automotive testing at Moog. “All six actuators have to be controlled exactly in terms of speed and time, and that’s a significant challenge when the table has to vibrate at up to 150Hz.”

The upgraded, high-frequency Moog MAST can test vehicle components, including batteries and electronics, for vibration, durability, and reproduce data collected on proving grounds. Underpinning Moog’s high-frequency shaker table is a six-leg hexapod (or Stewart platform), which the company originally developed for flight simulators. The hexapod has two equilateral triangular frames set one above the other, offset at 30°. Each apex of the top triangle is connected to the two apexes below it on the lower triangle via Moog actuators. Moog’s engineers designed the new table to reach frequencies up to 200Hz. The battery packs going into some of the EVs on the market include as many as 2,500 batteries, which can weigh 450kg or more. The high-frequency Moog MAST includes a table measuring 2,300 by 2,000mm and an actuator peak force of 53kN, which will handle a system payload of up to 600kg. Like traditional systems, the Moog MAST at Element has six degrees-of-freedom, moving the table in the x, y and z axes, with rotational movements over all three (i.e., pitch, roll and yaw). Without simulation technology like the kind in place at Element, OEMs lack real-time data about battery testing, Oliverio says, so they pull from generic specifications.

“If a car or battery maker wants to know what happens to a vehicle’s battery cell when the driver goes from 0 to 60 in 3 seconds, we use the new Moog MAST to replicate that,” Oliverio adds. “The table is resonance free up to 150Hz with a full payload.”

Oliverio says Element has combined the high-frequency table from Moog with the motion-control company’s test software and the Moog Test Controller to test EV battery packs in ways not possible until now. With the test controller and a power spectral density profile, Oliverio and his team can run a vibration test on a large battery pack before the OEM puts the vehicle on the road to see what shakes loose. This enables Element to get involved in the vehicle maker’s design and development process much earlier. Insight gained early in the process can then be applied to automobile specifications and use cases. Oliverio says customers are now coming to Element to take their testing a step further and replicate data they have collected from a proving ground or verify an EPA model with the new high-frequency shaker table.

“Real-time replication with 6DOF, especially for battery packs, is the next, big wave of testing,” Oliverio adds. “Other EV makers, like Tesla, are focused on the in-cabin gadgetry, so testing how that holds up is a priority, too.”

Oliverio says one advantage of working with Moog to upgrade the table versus buying a completely new system was the cost, another was the engineering know-how. A new table would have been an order of magnitude more expensive than the engineering Moog provided in three weeks, Oliverio notes.

“We’re now running live battery-pack charging and discharging in an environmental system at 150Hz; there may be less than ten other locations in the world that can offer that,” remarks Oliverio. “We’re running headfirst into the battery game, and high-frequency testing is getting us return customers and a line-up of new ones.”

 There are three fundamental approaches to test and validate autonomous mobility: on public roads, in complex computer-based simulations and on closed testbed facilities. These approaches ensure that all kinds of critical maneuvers can be successfully performed and thoroughly evaluated. An example of such a testing facility is SunTrax, a ‘regulated’ proving ground currently under construction and scheduled to be launched later this year.

A safe testing environment for sustainable mobility
The SunTrax project is being developed on a 202ha plot of land close to the city of Auburndale in Florida, halfway between the cities of Tampa and Orlando. Tilke has ensured that the most contemporary and cutting-edge testing sequences can be conducted in a safe and highly adaptable environment. The firm was selected due to its extensive background in planning and engineering racetracks and proving grounds on an international scale for the last 30 years.

Concept development through Tilke
Tilke’s racetrack DNA has been the key to successfully engaging with the automotive industry over the last 25 years as well as becoming a trusted partner for proving ground development.

Hermann Tilke, founder and managing partner at Tilke, said, “After having successfully completed the Daimler Immendingen proving ground in 2019, we are proud to have designed and planned the new autonomous mobility test facility in conjunction with the FDOT. Together with the defined construction specifications, we were able to incorporate our unique expertise from racetracks to ensure a safe and efficient operation. This allows for a concurrent multi-user venue as well as a highly flexible testing environment.”

Flexibility and openness are ingrained in the company’s DNA. These qualities have enabled Tilke to adapt quickly and incorporate new, innovative, complex testing specifications for autonomous mobility within its new designs. SunTrax introduces a new standard of testing, validating and certifying AV tech in the US and beyond.

Connectivity, highway rides, flexible urban environment
When designing a contemporary, cutting-edge proving ground for autonomous mobility, a detailed analysis, understanding and evaluation of future vehicle and communication technology is imperative.

To deliver safe and reliable AVs and reduce accidents while improving efficiency, a strong and secure communication network is a prerequisite. With V2V (vehicle-to-vehicle) and V2I (vehicle-to-infrastructure) communication, vehicles are better able to actively and accurately identify and inform drivers and passengers about real-time hazards such as construction areas and ice. These forms of vehicle-centric communication will play a great part in improving safety for all.

A modern proving is designed around countless different testing scenarios and the flexibility to adapt to change for future needs. The focus of these modern facilities is edge cases. These edge cases are highly complex traffic situations that will challenge the vehicle, which will result in the detection and pinpointing of potential loopholes and failures in the system.

The SunTrax proving ground will be centered around the following testing scenario clusters that will be available for the collective use of the extended user community:

• Highway testing with ‘on-’ and ‘off-ramp’ merger situations, platooning
• An urban road network with complex intersections and roundabouts in which flexible building façades are assembled and pedestrian substitutes are stationed
• Braking pads with various surfaces for the simulation of emergency braking
• Weather chamber to simulate fog and rain
• Laboratories and research and development spaces

This road infrastructure will enable the modeling and simulation of multiple traffic conditions as well as the safe deployment of autonomous vehicle technology. Furthermore, real-life cases such as traffic issues and accidents can be replicated and simulated on-site.

Safety certification and building trust in technology
One of the key advantages of a closed proving ground is its contribution to the building of autonomous mobility systems and the forging of trust in the tech. The certification agency will be able to issue safety certificates for vehicles and systems while using the facility and mastering highly complex testing scenarios. Trust and confidence in technology are central to the successful commercial rollout of AV solutions on public roads and in our day-to-day lives.

SunTrax will promote the technical development of new mobility solutions and become an experimental playground for OEMs, Tier 1 suppliers, startups, and mobility service providers to test and validate their respective technologies. In addition, SunTrax will serve as an important platform for insurance companies, city planners, universities and politicians to better understand the results and effects of introducing these novel mobility concepts.

Manuel Rubow, design director for test tracks at Tilke, commented, “At SunTrax, we tried to incorporate the entire spectrum of foreseeable mobility technologies and systems. This includes every aspect of or relating to a vehicle, such as road infrastructure, traffic lights, road surface conditions, city development and communications infrastructure.

“Throughout our long-standing relationships with OEMs and others, we find ourselves in a very privileged and advantageous position. Through our connections with these various organizations, we have a deep insight into the technology revolution and implications that lie 10-15 years ahead of us. Even so, our designs must be able to provide enough flexibility to a point that requirements – ones that may not be known or needed by us now – can already begin to be incorporated. The project has been a rather unique and particular challenge.”

The SunTrax facility will be completed in 2021. Construction of the site began back in 2018 and the first modules have already been opened.

However, bringing these disruptive technologies to market comes with significant investment, which is why industry leaders are now beginning to work together instead of competing alone. They are currently collaborating at the macro level, pooling resources through joint ventures and other strategies. Similar amounts of collaboration at the micro level enable engineering departments across an organization to build better products faster. Methodologies like ‘design thinking’ and ‘agile development’ also help promote collaboration and have been proven to increase the success rate for innovation significantly.

Automotive OEMs have accelerated their digital transformation initiatives on multiple levels, adding flexibility to their organizational structures and operational models. Empowering department leads to take control and ownership of their budgets both reduces unnecessary costs and rationalizes activities throughout the value chain. Going one step further, some firms have adopted zero-based budgeting, justifying expenses for each new period. Others are discovering new ways to build flexibility into their processes and eliminate waste.

Benefits of virtual testing
Developing a dynamic, knowledge-driven and customer-focused process is one of the most important goals for engineering test solutions. To achieve this successfully, the engineering team must eliminate activities that do not contribute to the bottom line and automate tasks wherever possible. Improvements can also include new cost models that better reflect actual needs while lowering test costs.

In crash testing, for example, 50 to 60 physical tests are not uncommon. Early tests that use hand-built prototypes can cost up to US$5m; later tests, though less expensive, can still run upward of US$200,000 each. ADAS and electric vehicles require new testing complexity that further increases costs. It is more cost-efficient to replace a physical test with a simulated test in a virtual environment whenever possible.

To increase virtual testing, engineers need software-connected systems and access to an engineering data pipe, the core of digital transformation. MeasX, an NI SystemLink Platinum Partner, and NI provide the software platform and analysis framework to connect test systems and manage the engineering data pipe from concept to manufacturing. The server-based intelligent systems and data management platform allows engineers to easily integrate current tools and workflows to leverage data across multiple applications.

MeasX’s X-Frame is an analysis framework that offers a scalable and unified way to work with data across the test organization. X-Frame on the desktop interfaces with SystemLink and uses the data management module features in its analysis and visualization process. With the ability to switch from X-Frame to X-Frame Server seamlessly, all X-Frame users can take advantage of server-based workflow/analysis to help remove operational inefficiencies and improve overall performance across test workflows.

For instance, a major automotive manufacturer uses X-Frame and X-Frame Server to analyze engine tests. It has also built component test systems using X-Frame for R&D and end-of-line activities. The consistent, structured analysis and visualization framework reduces the number of tools engineers need to learn.

In addition to providing server-based solutions that work with SystemLink, measX is meeting zero-based budgeting requirements. The X-Crash virtual crash test and visualization software is available on a pay-per-use basis. This payment model can help meet the budgetary goals of crash laboratories wanting to evaluate only a small number of tests per month.

Deeper insights
Gaining deeper insights from virtual testing depends on the company’s ability to connect and manage all stages of a new product introduction. It requires platforms with open data formats and interfaces across different data threads to enable engineers to read and work with any data in a fully transparent way, from initial concepts to manufactured products. In combination, X-Frame and SystemLink help companies achieve this level of data transparency among systems and departments. In the long run, engineers will only need physical tests to prove what has already been validated through virtual tests. As more testing shifts to the virtual world, the cost will reduce dramatically without compromising quality. For companies, virtual testing will create a stronger and more sustainable position in an increasingly competitive marketplace.

Written by measX

The in-house mechanical engineering team at ZF Friedrichshafen in Schweinfurt, Germany, has developed high-end shaker technology based on an innovative linear motor concept. “The performance characteristics of our new acceleration test benches read like a who’s who of shaker technology,” comments Frank Stengel, head of the control engineering department at ZF Friedrichshafen.

Plant two, which focuses on special-purpose machine building and employs around 150 people, plays a key role in the company’s development of machine solutions. It designs and builds production and test facilities for a wide range of tasks, including for external customers.

Stengel comments, “On a global level, there are numerous applications for very dynamic acceleration test benches in the top-range power segment.”

The newly developed shaker is said to usher in a new era of test bench technology for very demanding tasks. “With frequencies of 50Hz and maximum accelerations of 40g (almost 400m/s²) for dynamic forces of 17.6kN, competitors don’t have much to offer here,” Stengel adds.

The new vibration test bench has a modular design and can easily be adapted to meet customer requirements. According to Thomas Heilmann, group manager for chassis projects at ZF in Schweinfurt, this means that “for even higher forces, several linear drives can be arranged in parallel and matched to each other by control technology”.

Iron-core servo drive solution with optimum control characteristics
At the heart of the acceleration test bench is a high-performance linear drive system, which enables performance requirements to be met precisely, and application-specific adaptation to a wide variety of test objects. The basis for this is the Sinamics S120 high-performance drive system from Siemens, and a linear motor based on Siemens’ Simotics L-1FN3.

Harald Skodowski, who is responsible for the test bench software at ZF, explains, “Due to the special design of the linear drive, we can achieve a high dynamic response and at the same time a good traversing quality. This has enabled us to optimize ‘cogging’ even with the extremely high force requirements.”

The term ‘cogging’ refers to the physical force ripple that occurs quite frequently in iron-core synchronous linear motors. This phenomenon was tackled in this application by a torque compensation feature in the Siemens drive system.

The key performance enabler behind the impressive dynamic characteristics of the new linear tester from ZF is the merging of the control engineering properties of coreless variants with the force yield of iron-core linear motors.

Intensive cooperation between the automation specialists at ZF machine building and the drive experts from Siemens mechatronic support in Munich enabled the team to achieve this, as ZF project manager Michael Friedrich confirms: “In an intensive customizing coordination process, we developed the lightweight secondary section design together with the Siemens experts, optimized it for the specific application, and then implemented the magnet assembly in a highly professional way.”

The result is said to be a highly dynamic drive with a significantly reduced dynamic mass, in which the leading forces are minimized by introducing a central force into the test object and by its design as a dual-chamber linear motor.

ZF’s Steffen Diroll, who was responsible for programming and commissioning the linear tester, says, “This means we can create complex motion profiles even with high test loads, and run through them precisely.” Even the forward and return strokes are controlled separately.

Customized servodrive as an energy-efficient overall solution
The Siemens linear servo drive, adapted for the application, is a development which, compared with hydraulic solutions, is energy-efficient and can be deployed more individually in terms of control technology than conventional mechanical crank drive systems. To compensate for the magnetic attraction forces and optimize the force density of the motor, a special secondary section equipped with magnets on both sides was developed, which moves between the permanently installed primary sections from Siemens.

Energy buffering with  Siemens capacitor modules in the DC link of the Sinamics S120 drive system made it possible to reduce the feared ‘peaks’ in line-side power consumption. The ZF test benches with linear motor technology are therefore also suitable for mobile applications, as the ‘linear testers’ can be operated on the 400V three-phase network with 32A protection.

Even with high test object weights, this test setup is able to execute free motion profiles without any problems. Due to the compact dimensions of the linear drive and the high energy efficiency of the Sinamics S120 converter system, the test system could be designed very compactly, enabling mobile use with a 400V (32A) connection.

On January 22 this year, quietly and without fanfare, UNECE Regulation 155 was adopted. UNECE is the supranational authority tasked with creating regulatory alignment in many contexts, including the globalized car industry. This alignment is essential to homogenize standards across the diversity of jurisdictions where vehicles are manufactured and the locations where they are ultimately sold and driven.

The need for homogeneous automotive engineering standards has steadily ramped up recently. One reason for this has been the exponential increase in automotive systems that ‘talk’ to other vehicles or the infrastructure. The liabilities presented by these evolving technologies have thrust cybersecurity to the fore. Regulation 155 is intended to provide a uniform set of requirements to guide and govern how manufacturers should contend with the advance of new vehicle functionality that spans everything from ADAS to V2X and even onboard payment systems.

While fighting shy of the corporate panic inflicted by the millennium bug or the imposition of GDPR, cybersecurity engineers at Horiba MIRA believe that Regulation 155 will be a watershed for the automotive industry. Anthony Martin, chief engineer and head of vehicle resilience at Horiba MIRA, has led a team that has been intimately involved in the drafting of the new regulation. He points to five reasons why these changes present a systemic challenge for the industry.

No type approval, no sale
Of the five red flags Martin believes the industry should heed, the most significant is the adoption of Regulation 155 into national type approvals. The new cybersecurity protocols defined in the regulation will become an embedded element of the validation process carried out by type approval agencies in national markets. And of course, type approval is the process of certification that legitimizes vehicles to be sold. Martin’s warning is stark.

“Regulation 155 will result in new requirements for the type approval process. This has the potential to trip up manufacturers that are unprepared and ultimately means that vehicles that do not meet new approval requirements cannot be sold. For an industry reeling from the impact of the pandemic, no OEM or indeed no tiered supplier can afford another shockwave that affects their capacity to recover,” he says. “Cybersecurity preparation is, therefore, a critical consideration.”

The final countdown
With a clear commercial incentive to embrace the changes required by Regulation 155, another challenge is the immediacy of the new rules taking effect. Adoption through the national type approval process means that markets will work to their own timelines, but as a broad indication of the urgency of the response required, Martin points to the situation in the EU as an example.

“By July 2022 – which is less than 365 working days away – the EU will be mandating cybersecurity compliance through type approvals for all new vehicles in development by OEMs. There is a slightly longer timeframe of an additional 24 months for the requirements to impact existing model lines. Nevertheless, OEMs will have to get their cybersecurity house largely in order by next summer. By virtue of building a full set of services to steer OEMs through the process, we have a well-informed view of how long the process will take. The raw fact is July 2022 is a challenging deadline for any organization that has either not started preparing or lacks a strong leadership commitment to getting the necessary systems in place. The clock is very much ticking,” Martin says.

Prescription for the pain?
The third key detail the industry must recognize in relation to the new cybersecurity requirements is that Regulation 155 is not prescriptive. It does not provide a tick-box set of requirements for OEMs to meet; it is instead goal oriented. This means that OEMs must develop their own solutions to meet the intent of the regulation. Too much preparation will incur unwelcome overheads. Too little will mean that the cybersecurity management system (CSMS) implemented will not deliver the required type approval compliance. However, additional pathways to meet the new cybersecurity requirements are in development – in particular the new ISO/SAE 21434 standard – that will provide some assistance for manufacturers to develop an appropriate cybersecurity framework.

A job for life
One particular aspect of the manufacturer’s CSMS is the obligation to provision for continuously emerging cybersecurity threats and provide appropriate remedies. Traditionally, OEM obligations to vehicle purchasers have been finite in duration – for instance, extended warranties have required car makers to maintain a duty of care to customers for periods of perhaps seven years. But the new cybersecurity requirements shift this paradigm into an obligation to manage cybersecurity for the entire vehicle lifecycle – potentially across multiple ownerships – until ultimate decommissioning. This is a substantial new obligation that will require a quantum shift in the way manufacturers maintain relationships with their customers.

Cultivating a culture
The final, critical consideration that Horiba MIRA believes is essential for the industry to navigate the cybersecurity changes that will flow from the new regulation is to look beyond just the procedural enhancements to engineering processes.

As Martin explains, “The changes needed to establish a CSMS and to be able to pass routine cybersecurity audits are pervasive; new approaches will be needed in all phases from vehicle design to test and subsequent operation. But perhaps more importantly, successful solutions to cybersecurity demand a wholesale culture change within organizations. And importantly, this cultural shift has to take place not just in specific functional areas, but everywhere, led by executive commitment. Cybersecurity is here to stay, and solid preparation now will pay dividends in the future.”

To download the white paper click here.

The way we grew up at Lamborghini was to test a prototype – not just its components but the whole car. It was wonderful to go out on the road for the first time. Only four or five people would be involved in developing a prototype. [Back then] the objective was always to test the prototype and then to refine the components later. Over the months, we would test the individual components, the engine, suspension and so on.

We used to test on public roads near the company’s base. Lamborghini always used to develop its cars on public roads because these are the conditions that the customer will drive on. Then we would go to Nardò later in the testing cycle.

It required a lot of energy but it was much more rewarding. These days it’s very different; there are specialist test drivers for suspension, the drivetrain and other elements of the car – I have a lot of respect for the modern test driver.

You’ll find a feature on test driving in today’s vehicle development sphere in the March 2021 issue of ATTI, online here.

The HydroMet research group at McGill University, led by principal investigator Prof. George P Demopoulos, is part of McGill’s sustainability initiative. Over the past several decades, the group has been conducting research into sustainable renewable energy generation and storage systems, specifically Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and solar cells.

Currently it is estimated that 40% of a Li-ion battery cell’s cost is associated with the cathode. Therefore, over the past few years, experts in the HydroMet research group have devoted their attention to the development of a cathode made of lithium, iron and silicate (LFS), which is not only cost-effective but also an inherently safe and high-energy-density cathode material. This silicate research project was funded by Canada’s Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) and supported by Hydro-Québec, a globally renowned key player in battery development. 

Chemistry of choice
Among all the technologically mature battery systems, lithium-ion comes closest to internal combustion engines in terms of energy and power density – especially when compared with other conventional rechargeable battery solutions. Since the commercialization of lithium-ion batteries in the early 1990s, lithium-ion has become the dominant chemistry for portable devices. It has also penetrated the transportation market, becoming the chemistry of choice in most hybrid and electric road vehicles.

The development of BEVs in the automotive segment has advanced rapidly. But due to market demand for greater ranges and more energy efficiency, a shift to higher-energy-density LIBs has become necessary.

The energy density of a lithium-ion battery is dependent on the anode (negative electrode), cathode (positive electrode) and electrolyte materials. The cathode is currently a notable bottleneck in the development of LIBs; today’s solutions have a low energy density, high cost, sluggish charging and discharge rate, and low voltage. Therefore the HydroMet research group believes that effort should be devoted to the development of high-power and energy-density cathodes.

Source material
Cobalt is an expensive metal used widely in the cathode in commercial applications. About 60% of the world’s cobalt supply comes from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The mining of cobalt has been linked to human rights abuses, corruption, environmental destruction and child labor. 

Many companies would, therefore, like to considerably reduce or eliminate cobalt in lithium batteries, but experts are yet to find an alternative that offers the same efficiency. Well-known BEV manufacturer Tesla recently announced that it is currently working on the development of cobalt-free batteries, which will be based on lithium iron phosphate (LFP).

Intriguingly, LFS, the material of interest at the HydroMet laboratory, has double the theoretical capacity of LFP and can hold its capacity over several charge-discharge cycles. In practice, however, this hasn’t been achieved, due to poor intrinsic conductivity, resulting in slow movement of the electron and ions while charging and discharging the battery.

Interestingly, the group’s recent study focusing on the specific phase (crystal structure) of this cathode shows that these affordable materials could prove key for improving battery performance. Researchers adopted a polymer coating procedure that could enable iron and silicon – two of the world’s most abundant elements – to be used instead of cobalt. The results were analyzed and validated at the Canadian Light Source (CLS) at the University of Saskatchewan. 

As it happens, commercially available LFP suffered from the same issues during its research phase. That was resolved using carbon coating for each of the individual nanocrystals. Conventionally, individual cathode particles are coated with a high-temperature carbon coating. But in the case of the low-temperature phase of LFS, this would completely change its structure, which is usually highly unstable and delivers poor long-term cycling performance. The team was therefore keen to utilize an alternative technique to coat the individual nanoparticles to improve conductivity while keeping their original structure. 

Researchers used a polymer known as PEDOT, which is electronically conductive and can essentially coat the nanoparticles similarly to widely used carbon coating methods. This process was easier said than done. Figuring out a way to apply the coating to the surface of the nanocrystals took almost two years due to difficulty in keeping the original structure of the nanocrystals. Once the coating was successfully applied, LFS nanocrystals showed a surprisingly big jump in performance over carbon coating.

Research validation
To validate the research, cathodes were sent to CLS, where they were tested using CMCF beamlines and spectromicroscopy. These high-resolution testing techniques enabled researchers to dig deeper and begin to explain why the PEDOT coating treatment and the subsurface iron-rich layer improved the level of performance so much. Although there is still work to be done to understand why and build on this finding, this high-density cathode material opens up another pathway for cobalt-free batteries.

The PEDOT coating method has the potential to unleash the full theoretical capacity of LFP, enabling it to become a  commercially viable cathode for BEVs and a power source for various use cases including marine applications.

A battery essentially made of iron (rust) and sand (silica) could even become a possibility. With this development, the industry could look forward to cheaper batteries and mass electrification of transportation systems across the globe.

By Majid Rasool, postdoctoral fellow, McGill University

Images: McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

The legal defense community is devoted to a number of theories about car and driver performance. For example, there are plenty of lawyers who will tell you that there’s no such thing as unintended acceleration, and that the actual phenomenon is HFAs (Heavy-Footed Americans). Theories like these may be unproven in any scientific way, but if they succeed some of the time, in some courtrooms, that’s enough. 

The trouble with theories is that they rather depend on asking the right question, and the environment in which they are propounded. This week I learned that, in theory I am a ‘representative lawyer’, but only in a bad way. What I’m representative of is being male, pale and stale. That’s definitely a topic for another forum, so let’s take a notably more interesting theory, concerning CO₂, NO_X and particulate waste. In theory, at the time, Euro 6 was the answer. Unfortunately, since then, the question has changed. The question then, in 2014, was, What limits of particulate waste,  CO₂, and NO_X can we live with in passenger cars? The question that followed was, How will we test these new Euro 6 engines? Then came the sequential question, Is the NEDC test fit for purpose? It turned out it wasn’t, although I could have told you that at the time. Meanwhile, it’s still the wrong question.  

Then in 2018, as we all remember, came a shiny double initiative to fix NEDC. Not just the new WLTP test to replace it, but also a new complementary test, the so-called Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test. Henceforth, vehicles would undergo a longer, faster, four-phase WLTP test on a rolling dyno. Then they would also have a second test, where they would go outside. Test cars would leave the lab and be driven on public roads, in a range of conditions. They would be equipped with a portable emissions measurement system (PEMS) to measure particulate waste, their fuel economy and NO_X. At the time, RDE got quite a splash in the media, being described as a ‘world first’ that would ‘ensure that cars deliver low emissions in on-road conditions’. Again, nobody asked me and frankly why would they, but it’s pretty obvious that you can never actually ‘ensure’ what vehicles will deliver in real-world conditions. Still, the regulators were satisfied, the car makers spent a fortune equipping and testing new and existing model lines, and some tax authorities got a revenue boost when WLTP revealed increased CO₂ emissions.

What could possibly go wrong? Just the obvious and eternal variable: humans. What if the real-world human is a progressive driver with a penchant for high revs and low gears? Suppose the sun comes out and the human uses the air-con? Oops! None of these conditions exist in the framework for the RDE test.  

This, in a microcosm, is what’s been happening in our industry in the last decade: the wrong questions and disconnected theories, each valid only in its own operating environment. In the operating environment of regulators sending technicians to test facilities, and OEMs diligently performing witness tests, the data is representative and it answers the right question. But in the environment of real consumers, who sue real car makers in real courtrooms, the test data isn’t representative and doesn’t answer the right question. 

Actually, the right question is whether there are any economy and emissions tests that can reliably predict real-world experience. So far, the answer has been no. As I have tried to explain over the years to bemused courtrooms, these tests cannot give realistic predictions of real-world experience. All they can do is create comparative data between auto makers. We all knew that a decade ago, and nothing has changed. 

By Alex Geisler

It comes as a surprise to many foreign visitors to the USA that drivers as young as 14 are free to operate motor vehicles of all age, condition, size and performance on our public roads. Generally speaking, in most states with this age limit the rules require a licensed adult to be in the vehicle with them until they are 16, but this really is of no consequence when an emergency situation is encountered. 

Brave are the driver’s education instructors and parents who willingly climb into a car with their 14- or 15-year-old chauffeur and moments later are traveling at 70mph (110km/h) down the interstate. Driving at night? In the rain? In the snow? No problem. ‘Mom, I’ve got this.’ Until they don’t. Statistics show that a 16-year-old driver is 1.5 times more likely to get in a crash than an 18-year-old. Why is this? 

It won’t be news to many that traditional US driver’s education programs and licensing test requirements are sorely lacking. The oversight for these programs is left to the individual states, with little to no federal government involvement or, even more importantly, significant national requirements to be met. The most difficult portion of the licensing road test in most states is parallel parking. I’m fairly certain that of the 30,000-40,000 people killed annually on US public roads, poor parallel parking skills were not a major contributing factor. Unbelievably, some states do not even require a road test to receive your license but rather allow parents to certify that their child is capable of independently operating a vehicle on public roads. However, the reality is that a 16-year-old may be a comprehensively better driver than their 40-year-old parent. We are all wired differently and excel at different types of tasks. 

Armed with data on the staggering number of worldwide motor vehicle related deaths and a strong push from various government agencies, corporations large and small are pouring billions of dollars into developing ADAS and self-driving technologies with the goal of allowing the vehicle to operate more safely independent of the actions of the driver. AV technologies will eventually save countless lives, but developing these solutions from the vehicle side of the equation is only a portion of the overall task and offers limited near-term benefits. In our lifetime there will also be millions of humans behind the wheel of old and new vehicles who need a little development. 

I always cringe at the disclaimers that come with the current generation of self-driving technologies stating the driver must be ready to take control of the vehicle at any time. In other words, look ahead, assess surrounding traffic and anticipate what may occur at any given moment so that I am ready to make any emergency or non-emergency maneuver required. Really? How many drivers possess these skills even when they are driving a standard vehicle? 

Multiple advanced driving instruction programs are offered in the USA addressing this lack of skills development for new drivers. Assuming the student has completed the basic training and licensing requirements of their state, these programs take the next step and teach skills that can be used in emergency situations – panic braking ensuring full actuation of the ABS system, aggressive lane change maneuvers to avoid an obstacle, split-second decision making and, in the best courses, skid control with the aid of a skid car. Learning the basic skills to operate a vehicle develops responsibility and maturity and gives most teenagers a sense of freedom; learning to drive a vehicle well only enhances this experience and makes all our roads safer.

These advanced programs are typically funded by a combination of private and public funding sources as well as program fees. As the project development and implementation timelines for ADAS and self-driving technologies progress, advanced instruction programs could be implemented as part of all driver’s education curricula at a minimal cost. When I crashed my new bicycle into a ditch after taking the training wheels off, my parents didn’t put the training wheels back on but rather told me to practice in a safer place. Improving the active and passive safety features of new vehicles will always be an industry target, but making drivers safer from the moment they set out in any new or old vehicle will yield immediate, life-saving results.

By John Heider

The CAR 2 CAR Communication Consortium (C2C-CC) was established in Europe in 2002 by vehicle manufacturers to investigate, test and implement V2V and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) technology, and Volkswagen is the first out of the blocks to bring the first so-equipped production car to market.

The eighth-generation Golf has taken the model’s biggest technological leap in its 46-year history. One of Golf 8’s most important developments is the arrival of digital technology, not only in its pared-back cabin appearance, but also as a crucial part of the car’s onboard systems. An online connectivity unit (OCU) with integrated eSIM not only means that those systems are networked to each other, but also to the outside world. Particularly relevant to V2V, the new Golf is the first Volkswagen to be fully networked to
its surroundings via the company’s Car2X technology.

Data drive

Based on the wifi-p/WLANp wireless standard (also known as IEEE 802.11p and ITS-G5), positioning data and information from other vehicles and traffic infrastructure within a radius of 800m (2,625ft) is collected to warn drivers of any incidents and then forwarded to other Car2X-equipped vehicles within milliseconds. Related to wi-fi, wifi-p is designed to exchange data on the 5.9GHz band between vehicles and smart infrastructure.

“This type of wi-fi is specifically tailored to local communication between vehicles and does not use the mobile phone network, which means it provides blanket coverage within the limits of the system,” says Dr Hendrik-Jörn Günther, Volkswagen Passenger Cars’ senior connected vehicle engineer. “Car2X technology
can warn the driver of problems such as roadside breakdowns, the tail end of a traffic jam, or the location of an accident. It is also a benefit in emergency braking situations. If a driver suddenly operates the brakes or an automatic braking system is triggered – which can prompt the car’s brake lights before the brakes are physically applied – this affects traffic behind. With Car2X, other vehicles are informed of sudden braking maneuvers by traffic participants, enabling drivers to slow down in good time,” he says. 

It may also be a lifesaver. In 2016, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration stated that there could be 439,000 fewer accidents if vehicles were fitted with V2V technology. In Europe, Euro NCAP intends to incorporate Car2X functions into its safety ratings.

There are other benefits in addition to accident prevention. “The system can warn drivers of stationary hazards such as road works,” explains Günther.

“Car2X information could also be employed by receiving traffic light information, which can help infrastructure and road operators to increase traffic efficiency.” The location of emergency vehicles can also be determined, enabling traffic to react more quickly to create a safe passage. 

The real world

Extensive testing of Car2X technology in real-world environments is essential. A joint project in VW’s home city of Wolfsburg with Siemens – the two companies are supporters of the European Union’s objective of establishing a binding framework for networked driving across Europe – involved a total of 10 traffic signal systems that transmitted traffic light phases via wifi-p, along with two sets of crossroads fitted with sensor technology to detect pedestrians and cyclists. 

It’s not just cars that benefit from the technology either. In 2019, the Volkswagen Group also undertook the world’s first pilot project for traffic optimization with a D-Wave quantum computer in Lisbon, used on a Carris bus fleet during the WebSummit technology conference. Commercial vehicle platooning on highways is another instance where Car2X could bring efficiency savings.

In January 2020, the Testfeld Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony Testing Area) cooperative project opened on the A39 autobahn in Germany. Situated between Wolfsburg and Braunschweig, a 7km (four-mile) stretch of road operated by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) collects traffic flow data. 

Part-financed by the State of Lower Saxony, 71 masts with high-resolution cameras have been erected along the real-world test track. Anonymized data on the driving behavior of different types of road users
is recorded, and no data that is specific to individual vehicles – such as license plates or drivers’ faces – is collected. Only trajectories and movements of traffic are documented for evaluation. 

“The main priority for us is that we are able to gather insights and data on how the traffic actually behaves, in order to draw conclusions from that for the software for autonomous and assisted driving,” says Dr Sven Klomp, Volkswagen’s project manager for the preliminary development of assistance systems. 

Useful for open research and development, companies such as Continental and Siemens are also taking advantage of the A39 project. Dr Frank Welsch, chief development officer at Volkswagen Passenger Cars, believes the experiment will provide important valuations to further Car2X technology. “In order to research assisted driving, data from standard daily traffic is necessary. The Lower Saxony testing area allows us to not only collect such data in a completely real-world environment,
but also expand on it using simulations,” he says. 

That real-world data will then feed back into those traffic flow simulations. “We aim to constantly update
our traffic and simulation models with information based on real-life observations,” says Günther. “This helps us to reconstruct situations and assist with feature development.” 

Car2X is currently available on the new Golf only, but Günther confirms it has a place in forthcoming
VW passenger cars. “The Car2X technology facilitates ‘swarm intelligence’ in a local environment and is improving as more and more participants connect. For this reason, Volkswagen is now rolling it out on
a broad scale. After the Golf, other new models from the brand will feature it as standard.” And there are
no limits to the type of powertrain the vehicle has – the safety and efficiency improvements will benefit
all cars. “The technology was not made for a specific power unit. We believe that the benefits the system offers should be made available to all types of powertrain,” Günther comments.

Aid and assist

As well as Car2X tech, the eighth-generation Golf also heralds the arrival of innovative assisted driving functions. The Travel Assist system enables driving at up to 130mph (210km/h) without any active steering, acceleration or braking inputs, and Günther recognizes that Car2X may directly benefit the development of other intelligent AV functions. “Currently, the technology is able to help inform the driver about any events in the immediate driving environment. Future AV applications could incorporate information from other features within the limits of their systems. We believe Car2X can help possible future applications such as adaptive cruise control adjust to the presence of a traffic jam. This function would also be an example of an application relying on multiple sensor input,” he says. 

While some OEMs are awaiting the arrival of 5G before they launch Car2X systems, another advantage wifi-p offers is direct communication. This aids privacy, because with no cloud service, there is no record of exchanged data. For skeptics wary of any possible data collection, however, Günther says there will be safeguards to anonymize direct links back to an individual’s identity. “When setting up an ID in the vehicle for the first time, a ‘wizard’ will run through the necessary steps. This will include, for example, providing digital consent to the privacy policy directly in the vehicle in order to be able to use Car2X. Should users decide otherwise, they can change their privacy settings via the infotainment system,” he says.

With its Car2X technology, it seems Volkswagen has every box ticked.

Total autonomy 

Far from being just an automotive manufacturer, Volkswagen is transitioning to also being a software provider. Looking to boost its current in-house vehicle software development share from less than 10% to at least 60% by 2025, more than 10,000 digital experts will eventually work under the new Car.Software banner, and all Volkswagen Group vehicles are expected to run on the same software platform by the same date. A vehicle operating system – vw.os – and the Volkswagen Automotive Cloud (jointly developed with Microsoft) will also be introduced. 

“We are platform professionals for hardware and are now transferring this competence to development of software,” explains Christian Senger (pictured), member of the Volkswagen Passenger Cars board of management with responsibility for the auto maker’s digital car and services. 

All VW software, from the in-car operating system to digital ecosystems for new mobility services, will come under Car.Software, which will have global satellite development bases. Cross-brand software advances in five domains (automated driving, intelligent body and cockpit, connected cars and devices, digital business and mobility services, and vehicle motion and energy) will help Car.Software’s objective of establishing a uniform group software architecture that draws on parallel development paths from all brands. 

As well as software, Volkswagen Autonomy (VWAT) has been established as a center of excellence for the development of self-driving systems from Level 4, with sites in Germany. Operations in both Silicon Valley and China are also planned and the division will serve as a central know-how container within the Volkswagen Group to bring self-driving services to a level of market maturity. As part of Volkswagen’s industrial cooperation with Ford announced in July 2019, it is also taking an equal stake in Argo AI, which is developing autonomous driving technologies.

By Richard Gooding